what is personality psychology: Major theories of personality

 What is personality in psychology?

In  psychology, personality refers to a set of enduring and unique psychological traits, characteristics, and patterns that shape an individual's thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and experiences across different situations and over time. It encompasses an individual's characteristic way of perceiving, feeling, and relating to oneself and others. Personality is a multifaceted and complex construct that is influenced by a variety of factors, such as genetics, environment, culture, and personal experiences. Understanding personality is an important aspect of psychology as it helps in explaining and predicting human behavior and experience.

Major theories of personality in psychology

·        Top of Form

·        psychoanalytical  theory

A)   Freud ‘s psychoanalytic approach to personality

B)   Carl Jung’s analytical psychology

C)   Adler’s individual psychology

·        Humanistic theory

a)     Maslow theory of self actualization

b)    Rogers person centered theory

·        Trait theory   

1.                          Allport  trait theory
2.             Eysenck’s theory
3.             Five factor model of traits           

·        Behaviorist theory  

1. Bandura’s social cognitive theory
2. Skinners personality theory

1. psychoanalytical  theory

Psychoanalytical theory is a psychological approach developed by Sigmund Freud and his followers, which focuses on the role of unconscious and internal mental processes in shaping personality and behavior.

A)  Freud ‘s psychoanalytic approach to personality

Structure of personality

According to the psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud, personality is composed of three interconnected structures: the id, the ego, and the superego.

The Id: The id is the most primitive and instinctual part of the psyche. It operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification of basic biological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. The id is  unconscious and  present from birth.

The Ego: The ego is the rational and realistic part of the psyche. It operates on the reality principle and mediates between the demands of the id and the constraints of the external world. The ego develops in the first few years of life as a child learns to navigate the demands and expectations of the external environment.

The Superego: The superego is the moral and ethical component of personality. It is responsible for internalizing social norms and values, and it is closely related to the development of one's conscience. The superego is largely unconscious, and it is established during early childhood through identification with parents, caregivers, and other authority figures.

These three structures interact with one another to shape an individual's personality and behavior. Freud believed that conflicts between these structures, particularly the id and the superego, could lead to psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, and neurosis. Overall, this structural model of personality has had a significant impact on the field of psychology and has inspired many other theories and models of personality

Level of mind 

B) Defense mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that individuals use unconsciously to protect themselves from uncomfortable thoughts, feelings, or experiences. These mechanisms operate outside of conscious awareness and help individuals avoid anxiety, guilt, shame, and other unpleasant emotions.

Sigmund Freud and his followers identified several defense mechanisms, including:

1. Repression: Repression is the most basic defense mechanism and involves pushing painful or unwanted thoughts or memories into the unconscious mind, where they are inaccessible to conscious awareness.
2. Denial: Denial involves rejecting or minimizing the existence of a threatening or uncomfortable reality.
3. Projection: Projection involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses to another person.
4. Rationalization: Rationalization involves inventing a plausible, but false, explanation for a behavior or experience in order to justify it and avoid feelings of guilt or shame.
5. Displacement: Displacement involves redirecting an unacceptable impulse or emotion from its original target to a safer, less threatening target
6. Sublimation: Sublimation involves channeling an unacceptable impulse or emotion into a socially acceptable form of expression, such as creative work or physical activity

Overall, defense mechanisms can be helpful in managing difficult emotions and experiences, but they can also be maladaptive and interfere with an individual's ability to cope effectively with stress and anxiety.

C) Psychosexual stages: 

Psychosexual stages are a series of developmental stages proposed by Sigmund Freud as part of his psychoanalytic theory of personality. According to Freud, children progress through five distinct stages of sexual development, each characterized by a focus on a specific erogenous zone of the body:

1. Oral Stage: The oral stage occurs from birth to about 18 months of age and is characterized by a focus on the mouth as the primary source of pleasure and gratification. During this stage, infants explore the world through their mouths and derive pleasure from oral activities such as nursing, sucking, and biting
2. Anal Stage: The anal stage occurs from about 18 months to three years of age and is characterized by a focus on the anus as the primary source of pleasure and gratification. During this stage, children become fascinated with their bowel movements and the act of defecation.
3. Phallic Stage: The phallic stage occurs from about three to six years of age and is characterized by a focus on the genitals as the primary source of pleasure and gratification. During this stage, children become curious about their own genitals and those of others.
4. Latency Stage: The latency stage occurs from about six years of age to puberty and is characterized by a relative lack of sexual interest or activity. During this stage, children focus on developing social and intellectual skills and interests
5. Genital Stage: The genital stage occurs from puberty through adulthood and is characterized by a renewed focus on the genitals as the primary source of pleasure and gratification. During this stage, individuals develop sexual relationships and mature sexual attitudes. 

Carl Jung’s analytical psychology

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist who developed a theory of personality and psychotherapy known as analytical psychology. Some key features of Jung's approach include.

1. Collective Unconscious: Jung believed that the human psyche consists of three parts: the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a shared pool of inherited memories and experiences that all humans possess, which includes universal symbols and archetypes that reflect shared human experiences.
2. Archetypes: Jung believed that the collective unconscious is composed of archetypes, which are universal, symbolic images or patterns that are common across cultures and history. Examples of archetypes include the mother, the hero, the shadow, and the anima/animus
3. Individuation: Jung believed that the goal of psychotherapy was to help individuals achieve individuation, or the integration and balance of their conscious and unconscious selves. Individuation involves the process of discovering and integrating one's shadow (unconscious, hidden aspects of the self), as well as developing a sense of connection to the collective unconscious.

Adler’s individual psychology. 

Alfred Adler was an Austrian psychiatrist and psychotherapist who developed a theory of personality and psychotherapy known as individual psychology. Some key features of Adler's approach include:

1. Inferiority Complex: Adler believed that feelings of inferiority are a central aspect of human motivation and behavior. He believed that people are driven to compensate for their perceived inferiority, either by striving for superiority in positive ways (e.g., achieving goals, developing skills) or by seeking negative forms of attention (e.g., aggression, self-destructive behavior).
2. Social Interest: Adler emphasized the importance of social relationships and community involvement in promoting mental health and well-being. He believed that a sense of social interest, or a concern for the welfare of others, is essential for individual growth and fulfillment.
3. Birth Order: Adler believed that birth order (i.e., whether a person is a firstborn, middle child, youngest, etc.) can have a significant impact on personality development and behavior.
4. Lifestyle: Adler believed that each individual has a unique style of life, or a consistent pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that reflects their basic attitudes toward themselves, others, and the world. He believed that understanding a person's lifestyle was crucial for effective psychotherapy.
5. Holism: Adler's approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of the individual and their environment. He believed that people cannot be fully understood apart from their social and cultural context. 

2. Humanistic approach

Humanistic psychology is a school of thought in psychology that emphasizes the unique qualities of human beings, such as free will, creativity, and personal growth. Some key features of humanistic theory include:

Client-Centered Therapy: Humanistic psychologists developed a form of psychotherapy called client-centered therapy, in which the therapist creates a non-judgmental and supportive environment in which the client can explore their feelings and experiences. The therapist acts as a facilitator, helping the client to gain insight and to develop their own solutions to their problems.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Humanistic theorist Abraham Maslow developed a model of human motivation known as the hierarchy of needs. According to this model, people have basic needs (such as food, shelter, and safety) that must be met before they can focus on higher-level needs such as self-esteem, love and belonging, and self-actualization.

3. Trait Theory 

Allport's trait theory

Allport's trait theory is a perspective in psychology that emphasizes the importance of individual differences in personality. Some key features of Allport's theory include:

1. Cardinal Traits: Allport proposed that some individuals have a single trait that dominates their personality and influences all of their behaviors. This trait is known as a cardinal trait, and it is thought to be relatively rare.
2. Central Traits: Most people have a set of traits that make up their general personality. These traits are known as central traits, and they play a major role in shaping behavior across different situations.
3. Secondary Traits: Allport also recognized that people have a range of less consistent traits that are more dependent on the specific context in which they are exhibited. These traits are known as secondary traits.
4. Trait Hierarchy: Allport believed that traits could be organized into a hierarchy, with the most general and pervasive traits at the top and the more specific and situational traits at the bottom.
5. Common Traits: Allport suggested that certain traits are common to all people and can be found in every culture. These traits include the need for food, sleep, and safety, as well as more psychological needs like the need for affiliation and achievement.

Eysenck's theory of personality

Eysenck's theory of personality is a trait-based approach that emphasizes the importance of three broad dimensions of personality: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Some key features of Eysenck's theory include:

1. Extraversion: Eysenck proposed that extraversion represents the degree to which individuals are outgoing, assertive, and sociable. Extraverts are thought to seek out stimulation and enjoy social interactions.
2. Neuroticism: Neuroticism is the degree to which individuals experience negative emotions such as anxiety, fear, and sadness. High levels of neuroticism are associated with a greater likelihood of developing anxiety and mood disorders.
3. Psychoticism: Psychoticism refers to a tendency towards impulsive behavior, aggressive attitudes, and a lack of empathy. People who score high on this dimension are thought to be less concerned with social norms and more likely to engage in risky behaviors.

The Five Factor Theory of Personality

The Five Factor Theory of Personality, also known as the "Big Five" model, is a comprehensive and widely accepted trait-based approach to understanding personality. It suggests that personality can be described in terms of five broad dimensions or factors, which are:

1. Openness to Experience: This factor refers to a person's curiosity, imagination, and creativity, as well as their willingness to try new things and engage in novel experiences.
2. Conscientiousness: This dimension describes a person's degree of organization, responsibility, and dependability. Highly conscientious individuals are disciplined, hardworking, and reliable.
3. Extraversion: Extraversion refers to a person's sociability, assertiveness, and level of outgoingness. Highly extraverted individuals are energetic, talkative, and enjoy being around others.
4. Agreeableness: This factor describes a person's degree of compassion, kindness, and cooperativeness. Highly agreeable individuals are warm, empathetic, and generally get along well with others.
5. Neuroticism: This dimension reflects a person's tendency towards negative emotions such as anxiety, moodiness, and vulnerability. People who score high on this dimension are more likely to experience distress and may be prone to mood and anxiety disorders.

4.  Behaviorist theory

Behaviorist theory is a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping human behavior. It suggests that human behavior is learned through interactions with the environment, and that our behavior can be modified through changes in environmental stimuli.

Behaviorists believe that behavior can be explained in terms of simple cause-and-effect relationships, and that the study of observable behavior is the best way to understand human psychology.

Bandura’s social cognitive theory

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory is a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of observational learning, self-efficacy, and personal agency in shaping human behavior. It suggests that people learn by observing others and their behaviors, and that cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and motivation play a critical role in learning.

According to Bandura, individuals are not just passive recipients of environmental influences, but active agents who can shape their own behavior through self-regulation and self-reflection.

Key concepts of social cognitive theory include:

1. Observational learning: People can learn by observing the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviors.
2. Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation. Higher levels of self-efficacy are associated with greater motivation, persistence, and achievement.
3. Reciprocal determinism: This is the idea that behavior is shaped by the interplay between personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior itself. In other words, people's behavior can shape their environment, which in turn can influence their behavior.
4. Self-regulation: This involves setting goals, monitoring progress, and using feedback to adjust behavior in order to achieve those goals.

Skinner personality theory

B.F. Skinner is one of the most well-known behaviorists and his approach to personality theory focused on observable behavior and environmental factors that shape behavior. His theory of personality is often referred to as radical behaviorism or the operant conditioning theory.

Skinner argued that behavior is shaped by consequences that follow it, and that the consequences can either increase or decrease the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future. He proposed that all behavior, including personality traits, are learned through environmental reinforcement or punishment.

Skinner's theory of personality emphasized the role of operant conditioning in shaping behavior. He believed that all behavior is a result of a response to environmental stimuli, and that personality traits were simply collections of behaviors that have been reinforced over time. Skinner suggested that there is no such thing as a personality trait that is innate, as all behavior is learned through environmental influences.

Skinner's approach to personality theory has been criticized for ignoring the role of internal mental processes, such as thoughts and emotions, in shaping behavior. Additionally, it has been criticized for dehumanizing individuals by reducing them to simple stimulus-response machines. Despite these criticisms, Skinner's ideas have been influential in a number of areas, including education, therapy, and organizational behavior.